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replace if damaged

  • 1 заменять

    гл. substitute, replace, supplant

    заменять «б» на «а» — replace b with a

    замещать; заменять; занять место — take the place of

    Синонимический ряд:
    замещать (глаг.) замещать; заступать

    Русско-английский большой базовый словарь > заменять

  • 2 Ersatz

    m; nur Sg.
    1. auch Person: substitute; permanenter: replacement; Stoff: auch surrogate, ersatz pej.; Teil: replacement part; mitgeliefertes: spare (part); MIL. replacements Pl.; Ersatz schaffen find a replacement ( oder replacements) ( für for); keinen Ersatz für jemanden / etw. finden be unable to find a replacement for s.o. / s.th.
    2. (Vergütung) compensation; (Entschädigung) indemnification; (Schadenersatz) damages Pl.; (Wiedergutmachung) reparation; (Rückerstattung) restitution; als Ersatz für by way of compensation for; (im Tausch) in exchange ( oder return) for; Ersatz leisten für compensate ( oder make amends) for
    3. Ersetzung
    * * *
    der Ersatz
    substitute; substitution; replacement; reparation; ersatz; understudy
    * * *
    Er|sạtz [ɛɐ'zats]
    m no pl
    substitute (AUCH SPORT); (für Altes, Zerbrochenes, Mitarbeiter) replacement; (inf = die Ersatzspieler) substitutes pl; (MIL) (= Ersatztruppen) replacements pl; (= Reserveheer) reserves pl; (= das Ersetzen) replacement, substitution; (durch Geld) compensation; (von Kosten) reimbursement

    als or zum Ersatz — as a substitute/replacement

    zum Ersatz der beschädigten Ware verpflichtet — obliged to replace the damaged item

    Ersatz schaffen für — to find replacements/a replacement for, to replace

    * * *
    der
    1) (something that can be used in an emergency etc: Fruit is a good stand-by when children get hungry between meals.) stand-by
    2) (a person or thing used or acting instead of another: Guesswork is no substitute for investigation; She is not well enough to play in the tennis match, so we must find a substitute; ( also adjective) I was substitute headmaster for a term.) substitute
    * * *
    Er·satz
    <- es>
    [ɛɐ̯ˈzats]
    1. (ersetzender Mensch) substitute; (ersetzender Gegenstand) replacement
    als \Ersatz für jdn as a substitute for sb
    als \Ersatz [für etw akk] as a replacement [for sth]
    2. (Entschädigung) compensation
    \Ersatz für etw akk leisten to pay compensation for sth
    * * *
    1) replacement; (nicht gleichartig) substitute
    2) (Entschädigung) compensation
    * * *
    Ersatz m; nur sg
    1. auch Person: substitute; permanenter: replacement; Stoff: auch surrogate, ersatz pej; Teil: replacement part; mitgeliefertes: spare (part); MIL replacements pl;
    Ersatz schaffen find a replacement ( oder replacements) (
    für for);
    keinen Ersatz für jemanden/etwas finden be unable to find a replacement for sb/sth
    2. (Vergütung) compensation; (Entschädigung) indemnification; (Schadenersatz) damages pl; (Wiedergutmachung) reparation; (Rückerstattung) restitution;
    als Ersatz für by way of compensation for; (im Tausch) in exchange ( oder return) for;
    Ersatz leisten für compensate ( oder make amends) for
    3. → Ersetzung
    * * *
    1) replacement; (nicht gleichartig) substitute
    2) (Entschädigung) compensation
    * * *
    -¨e m.
    reparation n.
    replacement n.
    replacements n.
    substitution n.
    surrogate n.
    understudy n.

    Deutsch-Englisch Wörterbuch > Ersatz

  • 3 заменять в случае повреждения

    Atomic energy: replace if damaged

    Универсальный русско-английский словарь > заменять в случае повреждения

  • 4 deteriorado

    adj.
    1 spoiled, damaged; worn; shopsoiled (géneros).
    2 impaired, damaged, deteriorated, shop-worn.
    past part.
    past participle of spanish verb: deteriorar.
    * * *
    1→ link=deteriorar deteriorar
    1 damaged, worn
    * * *
    (f. - deteriorada)
    adj.
    2) worn
    * * *
    ADJ
    1) [edificio, mueble] dilapidated
    2) [ropa, alfombra] worn
    * * *
    - da adjetivo < mercancías> damaged; < edificio> dilapidated, run down
    * * *
    = impaired, decayed, decrepit, decaying, dilapidated, crumbling, disintegrating.
    Ex. In contrast to higher specificity, higher exhaustivity increases precision at the cost of impaired recall.
    Ex. The city was considered to be seedy ( decayed, littered, grimy, and dreary), crowded, busy, and strongly idiosyncratic (quaint, historic, colorful, and full of 'atmosphere').
    Ex. No bright new digital firm can do without at least some of the supposedly decrepit bureaucracy it so abhors in the old tweedy institutions it wants to replace.
    Ex. Following World War II, 'urban renewal' referred primarily to public efforts to revitalize aging and decaying inner cities.
    Ex. China's transport authorities plan to scrap dilapidated ships to enhance safety and improve the competitiveness of the industry.
    Ex. We must now look beyond crumbling books to determine the deeper significance of our stewardship obligations for the future = Debemos mirar más allá de los libros en deterioro para determinar cuál es el verdadero significado de nuestras obligaciones para el futuro.
    Ex. For all Havana's crumbling structures, its disintegrating roads and toxin-belching jalopies, it attracts over a million tourists each year.
    ----
    * deteriorado por el humo = smoke-damaged.
    * deteriorado por el paso del tiempo = timeworn.
    * no estar deteriorado = unimpaired.
    * * *
    - da adjetivo < mercancías> damaged; < edificio> dilapidated, run down
    * * *
    = impaired, decayed, decrepit, decaying, dilapidated, crumbling, disintegrating.

    Ex: In contrast to higher specificity, higher exhaustivity increases precision at the cost of impaired recall.

    Ex: The city was considered to be seedy ( decayed, littered, grimy, and dreary), crowded, busy, and strongly idiosyncratic (quaint, historic, colorful, and full of 'atmosphere').
    Ex: No bright new digital firm can do without at least some of the supposedly decrepit bureaucracy it so abhors in the old tweedy institutions it wants to replace.
    Ex: Following World War II, 'urban renewal' referred primarily to public efforts to revitalize aging and decaying inner cities.
    Ex: China's transport authorities plan to scrap dilapidated ships to enhance safety and improve the competitiveness of the industry.
    Ex: We must now look beyond crumbling books to determine the deeper significance of our stewardship obligations for the future = Debemos mirar más allá de los libros en deterioro para determinar cuál es el verdadero significado de nuestras obligaciones para el futuro.
    Ex: For all Havana's crumbling structures, its disintegrating roads and toxin-belching jalopies, it attracts over a million tourists each year.
    * deteriorado por el humo = smoke-damaged.
    * deteriorado por el paso del tiempo = timeworn.
    * no estar deteriorado = unimpaired.

    * * *
    ‹mercancías› damaged; ‹edificio› dilapidated, run down
    es una mesa bonita pero está muy deteriorada it's a nice table but it's in very bad condition
    * * *

    Del verbo deteriorar: ( conjugate deteriorar)

    deteriorado es:

    el participio

    Multiple Entries:
    deteriorado    
    deteriorar
    deteriorado
    ◊ -da adjetivo ‹ mercancías› damaged;


    ‹ edificio› dilapidated, run down;
    ‹mueble/cuadro› in bad condition
    deteriorar ( conjugate deteriorar) verbo transitivo ‹relaciones/salud/situación› to cause … to deteriorate
    deteriorarse verbo pronominal [relaciones/salud/situación] to deteriorate, worsen;
    [ mercancías] to get damaged
    deteriorar verbo transitivo to spoil, damage
    ' deteriorado' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    gastada
    - gastado
    English:
    shop-soiled
    - decrepit
    - fail
    - shop
    * * *
    deteriorado, -a adj
    [estropeado] damaged, spoilt; [por los elementos naturales] damaged; [edificio] dilapidated;
    el género llegó muy deteriorado the goods arrived in poor condition;
    el famoso cuadro se halla muy deteriorado the famous painting is in very poor condition;
    las relaciones entre ambos países están muy deterioradas relations between the two countries have greatly deteriorated
    * * *
    adj damaged
    * * *
    deteriorado, -da adj
    : damaged, worn

    Spanish-English dictionary > deteriorado

  • 5 estropeado

    adj.
    broken-down, spoilt, busted, crippled.
    past part.
    past participle of spanish verb: estropear.
    * * *
    ADJ
    1) (=averiado) [lavadora, televisor] broken; [ascensor, vehículo] broken down

    tengo estropeado el vídeo — the video is not working o has gone wrong o is broken

    2) (=dañado) [piel] damaged; [carne, fruta] off
    3) [persona]
    a) (=afeado)
    b) (=envejecido)

    está muy estropeada para su edad — she looks much older than she is, she looks pretty worn out for her age

    * * *
    - da adjetivo
    * * *
    = damaged, tatty [tattier -comp., tattiest -sup.], ruined.
    Ex. A replacement for the damage bar-code label can be made by using the replace label function.
    Ex. Putting books on show is a way of making recommendations by, as it were, remote control and anything tatty, botched-up and sloppily makeshift should be avoided.
    Ex. The beach is a ruined landscape, eerily quiet, save for the hum of mechanical diggers searching for yet more corpses.
    ----
    * estar estropeado = be kaput.
    * mercancía estropeada = damaged goods.
    * * *
    - da adjetivo
    * * *
    = damaged, tatty [tattier -comp., tattiest -sup.], ruined.

    Ex: A replacement for the damage bar-code label can be made by using the replace label function.

    Ex: Putting books on show is a way of making recommendations by, as it were, remote control and anything tatty, botched-up and sloppily makeshift should be avoided.
    Ex: The beach is a ruined landscape, eerily quiet, save for the hum of mechanical diggers searching for yet more corpses.
    * estar estropeado = be kaput.
    * mercancía estropeada = damaged goods.

    * * *
    no te pongas esos zapatos, están muy estropeados don't wear those shoes, they're falling apart
    lo encontré muy estropeado I thought he looked a wreck ( colloq)
    * * *

    Del verbo estropear: ( conjugate estropear)

    estropeado es:

    el participio

    Multiple Entries:
    estropeado    
    estropear
    estropeado
    ◊ -da adjetivo: estar estropeado [zapato/sillón] to be falling apart;


    [motor/coche] to be broken down;
    ver tb

    estropear ( conjugate estropear) verbo transitivo
    1
    a) ‹aparato/mecanismo› to damage, break;

    ‹ coche› to damage
    b) ( malograr) ‹plan/vacaciones› to spoil, ruin

    2 (deteriorar, dañar) ‹ piel› to damage, ruin;
    ‹ juguete› to break;
    ‹ ropa› to ruin;

    estropearse verbo pronominal
    1
    a) ( averiarse) [motor/coche] to break down;


    b) [plan/vacaciones] to go wrong

    2 ( deteriorarse) [ fruta] to go bad;
    [leche/pescado] to go off;
    [zapatos/chaqueta] to get ruined
    estropear verbo transitivo
    1 (causar daños) to damage: hemos estropeado la impresora porque usamos el papel equivocado, we have ruined the printer because we used the wrong kind of paper
    2 (frustrar, malograr) to spoil, ruin: ¡lo has estropeado todo con tus meteduras de pata!, you've ruined everything with your big mouth!
    3 (una máquina) to break
    ' estropeado' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    apolillada
    - apolillado
    - cascada
    - cascado
    - estropear
    - estropearse
    - fastidiada
    - fastidiado
    - jodida
    - jodido
    - lamentable
    - pasada
    - pasado
    - deshecho
    English:
    action
    - dud
    - soiled
    - spoilt
    - battered
    - tatty
    * * *
    estropeado, -a adj
    1. [averiado] broken
    2. [dañado] damaged
    3. [echado a perder] ruined, spoiled
    4. [envejecido] aged;
    la vi muy estropeada I thought she had aged a lot
    * * *
    adj ( averiado) broken;
    está muy estropeada fig she is really showing her age

    Spanish-English dictionary > estropeado

  • 6 garaje mecánico

    (n.) = mechanic garage, mechanic workshop, garage
    Ex. Both the mechanic garage and the bodywork workshop suffered extensive damage to the roof, and 11 cars belonging to customers were also damaged by heat and smoke during the fire.
    Ex. Thus, in order to replace the punctured tire by a new one, the automobile should be driven to a mechanic workshop nearby.
    Ex. Each time it's been in the garage, it drives OK for about 10-15 miles, before starting to play up again.
    * * *
    (n.) = mechanic garage, mechanic workshop, garage

    Ex: Both the mechanic garage and the bodywork workshop suffered extensive damage to the roof, and 11 cars belonging to customers were also damaged by heat and smoke during the fire.

    Ex: Thus, in order to replace the punctured tire by a new one, the automobile should be driven to a mechanic workshop nearby.
    Ex: Each time it's been in the garage, it drives OK for about 10-15 miles, before starting to play up again.

    Spanish-English dictionary > garaje mecánico

  • 7 miedo

    m.
    1 fear.
    dar miedo to be frightening
    me da miedo conducir I'm afraid o frightened of driving
    meter miedo a to frighten
    por miedo a for fear of
    tener miedo a o de (hacer algo) to be afraid of (doing something)
    le tiene miedo a la oscuridad he's scared o afraid of the dark
    tengo miedo de que se estropee I'm frightened it'll get damaged
    lo pasamos de miedo we had a fantastic time
    morirse de miedo to die of fright, to be terrified
    miedo cerval terrible fear, terror
    miedo escénico stage fright
    2 scare.
    * * *
    1 fear
    ■ ¡qué miedo! how frightening!
    \
    dar/meter miedo a alguien to frighten somebody, scare somebody
    morirse de miedo to be scared stiff
    tener miedo to be scared, be frightened, be afraid
    de miedo familiar (fabuloso) great, terrific 2 (de terror) terrifying
    miedo al escenario stage fright
    * * *
    noun m.
    - tener miedo
    * * *
    SM
    1) fear

    ¡qué miedo! — how scary!

    • coger miedo a algo — to become afraid of sth

    • dar miedo — to scare

    le daba miedo hacerlo — he was afraid o scared to do it

    • de miedo, una película de miedo — a horror film

    • entrar miedo a algn, me entró un miedo terrible — I suddenly felt terribly scared

    • meter miedo a algn — to scare o frighten sb

    • pasar miedo, pasé mucho miedo viendo la película — I was very scared watching the film

    • perder el miedo a algo — to lose one's fear of sth

    • por miedo a o de algo — for fear of sth

    por miedo a o de quedar en ridículo — for fear of looking ridiculous

    por miedo de que... — for fear that...

    • tener miedo — to be scared o frightened

    tener miedo a o de algn/algo — to be afraid of sb/sth

    tenemos miedo a o de que nos ataquen — we're afraid that they may attack us

    tener miedo de o a hacer algo — to be afraid to do sth, be afraid of doing sth

    miedo al público — (Teat) stage fright

    2)

    de miedo * —

    * * *
    masculino fear

    me da miedo salir de noche — I'm afraid to go o of going out at night

    se cagaba de miedo — (vulg) he was shit-scared (vulg)

    miedo A algo/alguien — fear of something/somebody

    le tiene miedo a su padre — he's scared o afraid of his father

    agarrarle or (esp Esp) cogerle miedo a algo/alguien — to become frightened o scared of something/somebody

    tener miedo — to be afraid o frightened o scared

    de miedo — (fam) fantastic, great (colloq)

    * * *
    = fear, horror, trepidation, scare, fright.
    Ex. Many respondents confessed to well-justified fears that if they lose their existing specialists, the 'cut and squeeze' method of reducing establishments would not allow them to replace such staff.
    Ex. In recent years, then, there has been much less scaremongering about the imagined horrors of drowning in a sea of paper.
    Ex. This trepidation is somewhat quieted when students discover the abundance of bibliographical guides that list and describe reference works.
    Ex. These stories are sometimes treated inaccurately, creating health scares and misinformation.
    Ex. The article is entitled 'Children's fright reactions to television news'.
    ----
    * cagarse de miedo = shit + bricks, shit.
    * coger miedo = scare + Reflexivo.
    * con miedo = fearfully, afraid, frightened.
    * cosas que dan miedo = things that go bump in the night.
    * disipar el miedo = assuage + fear.
    * dominar el miedo = conquer + fear.
    * encogerse de miedo = cower.
    * entrar miedo = become + jittery.
    * esconderse de miedo = cower.
    * estar muerto de miedo = be scared stiff, be frightened to death, be petrified of, be terrified.
    * estar temblando de miedo = be frightened to death.
    * expresar miedo = express + fear.
    * infundir miedo = instil + fear.
    * meter miedo = frighten, scare.
    * miedo a las tablas = stage fright.
    * miedo a la tecnología = techno-fear [technofear].
    * miedo al escenario = stage fright.
    * miedo a lo desconocido = fear of the unknown.
    * miedo al ordenador = computer anxiety.
    * miedo continuo = nagging fear.
    * miedo escénico = stage fright.
    * miedo hacia lo desconocido = fear of the unknown.
    * miedo nuclear = nuclear fear.
    * mostrar miedo = show + fear.
    * no hacer Algo por miedo = wimp out (on), wimp, chicken out (on/of).
    * por miedo de = for fear of/that.
    * que da miedo = scary [scarier -comp., scariest -sup.].
    * retirarse por miedo = wimp out (on), wimp, chicken out (on/of).
    * sembrar el miedo = spread + fear.
    * sentir miedo = be in fear.
    * sin miedo = with confidence.
    * superar el miedo = overcome + Posesivo + fear, conquer + fear.
    * tener miedo = be afraid, be in fear, frighten.
    * tener miedo a = be scared of.
    * tener miedo a Alguien = regard + Nombre + with fear.
    * vencer el miedo = face + Posesivo + fears, conquer + fear, overcome + Posesivo + fear.
    * vivir con miedo = live in + fear.
    * * *
    masculino fear

    me da miedo salir de noche — I'm afraid to go o of going out at night

    se cagaba de miedo — (vulg) he was shit-scared (vulg)

    miedo A algo/alguien — fear of something/somebody

    le tiene miedo a su padre — he's scared o afraid of his father

    agarrarle or (esp Esp) cogerle miedo a algo/alguien — to become frightened o scared of something/somebody

    tener miedo — to be afraid o frightened o scared

    de miedo — (fam) fantastic, great (colloq)

    * * *
    = fear, horror, trepidation, scare, fright.

    Ex: Many respondents confessed to well-justified fears that if they lose their existing specialists, the 'cut and squeeze' method of reducing establishments would not allow them to replace such staff.

    Ex: In recent years, then, there has been much less scaremongering about the imagined horrors of drowning in a sea of paper.
    Ex: This trepidation is somewhat quieted when students discover the abundance of bibliographical guides that list and describe reference works.
    Ex: These stories are sometimes treated inaccurately, creating health scares and misinformation.
    Ex: The article is entitled 'Children's fright reactions to television news'.
    * cagarse de miedo = shit + bricks, shit.
    * coger miedo = scare + Reflexivo.
    * con miedo = fearfully, afraid, frightened.
    * cosas que dan miedo = things that go bump in the night.
    * disipar el miedo = assuage + fear.
    * dominar el miedo = conquer + fear.
    * encogerse de miedo = cower.
    * entrar miedo = become + jittery.
    * esconderse de miedo = cower.
    * estar muerto de miedo = be scared stiff, be frightened to death, be petrified of, be terrified.
    * estar temblando de miedo = be frightened to death.
    * expresar miedo = express + fear.
    * infundir miedo = instil + fear.
    * meter miedo = frighten, scare.
    * miedo a las tablas = stage fright.
    * miedo a la tecnología = techno-fear [technofear].
    * miedo al escenario = stage fright.
    * miedo a lo desconocido = fear of the unknown.
    * miedo al ordenador = computer anxiety.
    * miedo continuo = nagging fear.
    * miedo escénico = stage fright.
    * miedo hacia lo desconocido = fear of the unknown.
    * miedo nuclear = nuclear fear.
    * mostrar miedo = show + fear.
    * no hacer Algo por miedo = wimp out (on), wimp, chicken out (on/of).
    * por miedo de = for fear of/that.
    * que da miedo = scary [scarier -comp., scariest -sup.].
    * retirarse por miedo = wimp out (on), wimp, chicken out (on/of).
    * sembrar el miedo = spread + fear.
    * sentir miedo = be in fear.
    * sin miedo = with confidence.
    * superar el miedo = overcome + Posesivo + fear, conquer + fear.
    * tener miedo = be afraid, be in fear, frighten.
    * tener miedo a = be scared of.
    * tener miedo a Alguien = regard + Nombre + with fear.
    * vencer el miedo = face + Posesivo + fears, conquer + fear, overcome + Posesivo + fear.
    * vivir con miedo = live in + fear.

    * * *
    fear
    ¡qué miedo pasamos! we were so frightened o scared!
    el miedo se apoderó de ellos they were gripped by o overcome with fear
    estaba temblando de miedo he was trembling with fear
    casi me muero de miedo I almost died of fright, I was scared half to death ( colloq)
    me da miedo salir de noche I'm afraid to go o of going out at night
    esto le hará perder el miedo this will help him overcome his fear
    estaba que se cagaba de miedo ( vulg); he was shit-scared o scared shitless ( vulg)
    miedo A algo/algn fear OF sth/sb
    el miedo a la muerte/a lo desconocido fear of death/the unknown
    le tiene miedo a la oscuridad/su padre he's scared o frightened o afraid of the dark/his father
    cogerle or agarrarle miedo a algo/algn to become frightened o scared of sth/sb
    por miedo a ser descubierto for fear of being found out
    tengo miedo de perderme I'm worried o afraid I might get lost
    tiene miedo de caerse he's afraid of falling, he's afraid he might fall
    tengo miedo de que se ofenda I'm afraid he will take offense, I'm worried he might take offense
    de miedo ( esp Esp fam): se ha comprado un coche de miedo he's bought himself a fantastic o great car ( colloq)
    en la fiesta lo pasamos de miedo we had a fantastic o great time at the party ( colloq)
    jugaron de miedo they played fantastically o brilliantly ( colloq)
    hace un frío de miedo it's freezing cold
    Compuesto:
    stage fright
    * * *

     

    miedo sustantivo masculino
    fear;
    ◊ ¡qué miedo pasamos! we were so frightened o scared!;

    temblaba de miedo he was trembling with fear;
    me da miedo salir de noche I'm afraid to go o of going out at night;
    miedo A algo/algn fear of sth/sb;
    el miedo a lo desconocido fear of the unknown;
    le tiene miedo a su padre he's scared o afraid of his father;
    miedo a salir a escena stage fright;
    agarrarle or (esp Esp) cogerle miedo a algo/algn to become frightened o scared of sth/sb;
    por miedo a for fear of;
    tener miedo to be afraid o frightened o scared;
    tiene miedo de caerse he's afraid he might fall;
    tengo miedo de que se ofenda I'm afraid he will take offense
    miedo sustantivo masculino
    1 (terror) fear, fright: me da miedo la oscuridad, I'm scared of the dark
    la película me metió miedo, the film frightened me
    temblaba de miedo, he was trembling with fear
    ¡mamá, tengo miedo!, mummy, I'm scared! ➣ Ver nota en fear
    2 (recelo, preocupación) concern: tiene miedo de suspender, he's worried that he will fail
    tengo miedo por ti, I'm worried about you ➣ Ver nota en afraid
    ♦ Locuciones: familiar de miedo: el agua está de miedo, the water is great

    ' miedo' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    cagarse
    - canillera
    - cundir
    - escénica
    - escénico
    - experimentar
    - gritar
    - inocuidad
    - meter
    - mucha
    - mucho
    - muerta
    - muerto
    - osada
    - osado
    - película
    - temer
    - temblar
    - temblor
    - temblorosa
    - tembloroso
    - tenebrosa
    - tenebroso
    - terrorífica
    - terrorífico
    - alarido
    - aprensión
    - campante
    - chillar
    - chillido
    - comunicar
    - contagiar
    - de
    - encoger
    - espanto
    - estremecer
    - estremecimiento
    - horror
    - infundir
    - invencible
    - morir
    - pasar
    - quitar
    - sostener
    - terror
    - vencer
    English:
    afraid
    - apprehension
    - be
    - bully
    - curdle
    - dark
    - death
    - dignity
    - eerie
    - evaporate
    - fear
    - fearfully
    - fearlessly
    - free
    - fright
    - frightened
    - lest
    - monster
    - numb
    - overcome
    - recoil
    - register
    - scandal
    - scare
    - scary
    - seize
    - sense
    - shiver
    - shock
    - sick
    - spasm
    - stage fright
    - stiff
    - strike
    - bear
    - betray
    - cower
    - petrified
    - scared
    - shake
    - stage
    - still
    - with
    * * *
    miedo nm
    fear;
    miedo cerval terrible fear, terror;
    dar miedo to be frightening;
    me da miedo conducir o Am [m5] manejar I'm afraid o frightened of driving;
    me da miedo que se entere I'm frightened o scared she'll find out;
    agarró o Am [m5] tomó o Esp [m5] cogió miedo a volar he developed a fear of flying;
    meter miedo a alguien to frighten sb;
    nos metió miedo en el cuerpo it put the fear of God into us;
    por miedo a for fear of;
    no le dije la verdad por miedo a ofenderla I didn't tell her the truth for fear of offending her;
    temblar de miedo to tremble with fear;
    tener miedo a o [m5] de (hacer algo) to be afraid of (doing sth);
    le tiene miedo a la oscuridad he's scared o afraid of the dark;
    tengo miedo de que se estropee I'm frightened it'll get damaged;
    morirse de miedo to die of fright, to be terrified;
    Esp Fam
    de miedo: la película estuvo de miedo the movie was brilliant;
    lo pasamos de miedo we had a fantastic time;
    cogió una borrachera de miedo he got totally plastered;
    cocina de miedo he's a fantastic o an amazing cook;
    muy Fam
    cagarse de miedo to shit oneself;
    muy Fam
    estar cagado de miedo to be shit-scared
    miedo escénico stage fright
    * * *
    m fear (a of);
    dar miedo be frightening;
    miedo a volar fear of flying;
    me da miedo la oscuridad I’m frightened of the dark;
    meter miedo a frighten;
    tener miedo de que be afraid that;
    por miedo a for fear of;
    de miedo fam great fam, awesome fam
    * * *
    miedo nm
    1) temor: fear
    le tiene miedo al perro: he's scared of the dog
    tenían miedo de hablar: they were afraid to speak
    2)
    dar miedo : to frighten
    * * *
    miedo n fear
    dar miedo to frighten / to scare
    de miedo (muy bueno) great / fantastic (muy grande) terrible / awful

    Spanish-English dictionary > miedo

  • 8 taller

    m.
    1 workshop (lugar de trabajo).
    taller de artesanía craft studio
    2 garage (automobiles).
    taller mecánico o de reparaciones garage, repair shop
    3 workshop (cursillo, seminario).
    4 factory, works.
    * * *
    1 (obrador) workshop
    2 (de artista) studio
    3 (en fábrica) shop, workshop
    4 AUTOMÓVIL garage, repair shop
    \
    taller de reparaciones garage, repair shop
    taller de teatro drama workshop
    taller mecánico garage, repair shop
    * * *
    noun m.
    * * *
    SM (Téc, Educ, Teat) workshop; (=fábrica) factory, mill; (Aut) garage, repair shop; (Arte) studio; (Cos) workroom; [en lenguaje sindical] shop

    taller de coches — car repair shop, garage ( for repairs)

    taller de teatro — theatre workshop, drama workshop

    taller de trabajo — [en congreso etc] workshop

    * * *
    1)
    a) (Auto) garage, repair shop (AmE)
    b) (de carpintero, técnico) workshop
    2) (Educ) workshop
    * * *
    = shop, workshop, shop floor, studio, machine shop, mechanic workshop, mechanic garage, garage.
    Ex. In strong contrast to, say, television sets and instant coffee, where the consumer may save by shopping around, there is no advantage to be gained by going to one shop rather than another for a book so far as price is concerned.
    Ex. The customers preferred to go in by a glazed door set in the shop-front and giving onto the street, even though this meant going down some steps, the floor of the workshop being below road-level.
    Ex. The system is being used daily on the shop floor and has virtually eliminated the production of low quality parts that must be scrapped.
    Ex. The author describes the design of the new studios which aim to be as flexible as possible.
    Ex. The questionnaire was then sent to machine shops throughout the State of Oklahoma.
    Ex. Thus, in order to replace the punctured tire by a new one, the automobile should be driven to a mechanic workshop nearby.
    Ex. Both the mechanic garage and the bodywork workshop suffered extensive damage to the roof, and 11 cars belonging to customers were also damaged by heat and smoke during the fire.
    Ex. Each time it's been in the garage, it drives OK for about 10-15 miles, before starting to play up again.
    ----
    * escuela taller = technical school.
    * jefe de taller = overseer.
    * taller artesanal = arts and crafts workshop.
    * taller de asesoramiento jurídico = legal advice surgery.
    * taller de chapa y pintura = bodywork workshop, bodywork garage.
    * taller de encuadernación = bindery.
    * taller de fundición = foundry.
    * taller de fundición de tipos = type-foundry, type-foundry.
    * taller de imprenta = printing house, printing firm, printing company, print shop.
    * taller de impresión = print shop, printing firm, printing house.
    * taller de máquinas = machine shop.
    * taller de mecánica = garage, mechanic garage.
    * taller de reparación de zapatos = shoe repair shop.
    * taller de reprografía = reprographics workshop.
    * taller de restauración = restoration workshop.
    * taller de trabajo = workshop, study school.
    * taller de trabajo esclavo = sweatshop.
    * taller de trabajo sobre composición = writing workshop.
    * taller gráfico = printing company, printing press, printing firm, printing house.
    * taller mecánico = mechanic workshop, mechanic garage, garage.
    * * *
    1)
    a) (Auto) garage, repair shop (AmE)
    b) (de carpintero, técnico) workshop
    2) (Educ) workshop
    * * *
    = shop, workshop, shop floor, studio, machine shop, mechanic workshop, mechanic garage, garage.

    Ex: In strong contrast to, say, television sets and instant coffee, where the consumer may save by shopping around, there is no advantage to be gained by going to one shop rather than another for a book so far as price is concerned.

    Ex: The customers preferred to go in by a glazed door set in the shop-front and giving onto the street, even though this meant going down some steps, the floor of the workshop being below road-level.
    Ex: The system is being used daily on the shop floor and has virtually eliminated the production of low quality parts that must be scrapped.
    Ex: The author describes the design of the new studios which aim to be as flexible as possible.
    Ex: The questionnaire was then sent to machine shops throughout the State of Oklahoma.
    Ex: Thus, in order to replace the punctured tire by a new one, the automobile should be driven to a mechanic workshop nearby.
    Ex: Both the mechanic garage and the bodywork workshop suffered extensive damage to the roof, and 11 cars belonging to customers were also damaged by heat and smoke during the fire.
    Ex: Each time it's been in the garage, it drives OK for about 10-15 miles, before starting to play up again.
    * escuela taller = technical school.
    * jefe de taller = overseer.
    * taller artesanal = arts and crafts workshop.
    * taller de asesoramiento jurídico = legal advice surgery.
    * taller de chapa y pintura = bodywork workshop, bodywork garage.
    * taller de encuadernación = bindery.
    * taller de fundición = foundry.
    * taller de fundición de tipos = type-foundry, type-foundry.
    * taller de imprenta = printing house, printing firm, printing company, print shop.
    * taller de impresión = print shop, printing firm, printing house.
    * taller de máquinas = machine shop.
    * taller de mecánica = garage, mechanic garage.
    * taller de reparación de zapatos = shoe repair shop.
    * taller de reprografía = reprographics workshop.
    * taller de restauración = restoration workshop.
    * taller de trabajo = workshop, study school.
    * taller de trabajo esclavo = sweatshop.
    * taller de trabajo sobre composición = writing workshop.
    * taller gráfico = printing company, printing press, printing firm, printing house.
    * taller mecánico = mechanic workshop, mechanic garage, garage.

    * * *
    A
    1 ( Auto) garage, repair shop ( AmE)
    2 (de carpintero, técnico) workshop
    Compuestos:
    garage, vehicle repair shop ( AmE frml)
    mpl printing works
    garage, vehicle repair shop ( AmE frml)
    B ( Educ) workshop
    * * *

     

    taller sustantivo masculino
    1
    a) (Auto) tb


    b) (de carpintero, técnico) workshop

    2 (Educ) workshop
    taller sustantivo masculino
    1 (lugar de trabajo) workshop
    (de un artista) studio
    Educ workshop
    2 Auto taller mecánico o de reparaciones, garage, US repair shop
    ' taller' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    actualidad
    - alfarería
    - bregar
    - camisería
    - carpintería
    - cristalería
    - ella
    - estirón
    - fundición
    - ganar
    - imprenta
    - lijadora
    - presupuesto
    - relojería
    - sacar
    - sillería
    - sobrepasar
    - superar
    - tapicería
    - cabeza
    - grúa
    - imaginar
    - montallantas
    - refaccionaria
    - reparación
    - volver
    - zapatería
    English:
    garage
    - have
    - pottery
    - shop
    - studio
    - workshop
    - work
    * * *
    taller nm
    1. [lugar de trabajo] [de ebanista, artesano] workshop, studio;
    [de artista] studio taller de artesanía craft studio;
    taller de confección dressmaker's workshop;
    taller de costura dressmaker's workshop;
    talleres gráficos print shop, printing works
    2. [de reparación de vehículos] garage, repair shop
    taller de bicicletas bicycle (repair) shop;
    taller mecánico garage, repair shop;
    taller de reparaciones garage, repair shop
    3. [sección de fábrica] shop
    taller de montaje assembly shop
    4. [cursillo, seminario] workshop;
    taller de teatro/títeres theatre/puppet workshop
    * * *
    m workshop
    * * *
    taller nm
    1) : shop, workshop
    2) : studio (of an artist)
    * * *
    1. (de coches) garage
    2. (de formación) workshop
    3. (de artista) studio

    Spanish-English dictionary > taller

  • 9 taller mecánico

    m.
    vehicle repair shop, auto repair shop, garage.
    * * *
    garage, repair shop
    * * *
    (n.) = mechanic workshop, mechanic garage, garage
    Ex. Thus, in order to replace the punctured tire by a new one, the automobile should be driven to a mechanic workshop nearby.
    Ex. Both the mechanic garage and the bodywork workshop suffered extensive damage to the roof, and 11 cars belonging to customers were also damaged by heat and smoke during the fire.
    Ex. Each time it's been in the garage, it drives OK for about 10-15 miles, before starting to play up again.
    * * *
    (n.) = mechanic workshop, mechanic garage, garage

    Ex: Thus, in order to replace the punctured tire by a new one, the automobile should be driven to a mechanic workshop nearby.

    Ex: Both the mechanic garage and the bodywork workshop suffered extensive damage to the roof, and 11 cars belonging to customers were also damaged by heat and smoke during the fire.
    Ex: Each time it's been in the garage, it drives OK for about 10-15 miles, before starting to play up again.

    * * *
    auto repair shop

    Spanish-English dictionary > taller mecánico

  • 10 changer

    changer [∫ɑ̃ʒe]
    ➭ TABLE 3
    1. transitive verb
       a. ( = modifier) to change
    • ça change tout ! that changes everything!
       b. ( = remplacer, échanger) to change
    • changer 100 € contre des livres to change €100 into pounds
    • changer les draps/une ampoule to change the sheets/a bulb
       c. ( = déplacer) changer qn/qch de place to move sb/sth (to a different place)
       d. ( = transformer) changer qch/qn en to turn sth/sb into
       e. ( = mettre d'autres vêtements à) changer un enfant/malade to change a child/patient
       f. ( = procurer un changement à) ils vont en Italie, ça les changera de l'Angleterre ! they're going to Italy, it will make a change for them after England!
       g. ► changer de to change
    • changer d'adresse/de voiture to change one's address/car
    • changer d'avis or d'idée to change one's mind
    • changer de train/compartiment to change trains/compartments
    2. intransitive verb
       a. ( = se transformer) to change
    • changer en bien/mal to change for the better/worse
       c. ( = procurer un changement) pour changer ! that makes a change!
    3. reflexive verb
       a. ( = mettre d'autres vêtements) to change
    • va te changer ! go and change!
       b. ( = se transformer) se changer en to turn into
    * * *
    ʃɑ̃ʒe
    1.
    1) ( échanger) to exchange [objet] (pour, contre for); to change [secrétaire, emploi] (pour, contre for)
    2) ( convertir) to change [argent]
    3) ( remplacer) to change [objet] (par, pour for); to replace [personne] (par, pour with)
    4) ( déplacer)
    5) ( modifier) to change

    changer quelque chose/qn en — to turn something/sb into


    2.
    changer de verbe transitif indirect

    changer de place — [personne] to change seats ( avec with); [objet] to be moved

    changer d'opinion or d'avis — to change one's mind

    changer de sexe — to have a sex change; chemise


    3.
    verbe intransitif
    1) ( se modifier) [situation, santé, temps] to change

    il a changé en bien/mal — he's changed for the better/worse

    il y a quelque chose de changé dans leur comportement — there's something different about their behaviour [BrE]

    2) ( être remplacé) [personne, livre] to be changed; [horaire] to change

    4.
    se changer verbe pronominal
    1) ( mettre d'autres vêtements) to get changed

    se changer en — to turn ou change into

    ••
    * * *
    ʃɑ̃ʒe
    1. vt
    1) (= modifier) to change
    2) (= remplacer) [draps, ampoule] to change, [produit défectueux] to exchange

    J'ai changé les draps ce matin. — I changed the sheets this morning.

    Il est légèrement endommagé, va le changer. — It's slightly damaged, go and exchange it.

    3) FINANCE, [argent] to change

    J'ai changé trois cents euros. — I changed 300 euros.

    4) (= rhabiller) [malade, bébé] to change

    changer qn/qch de place — to move sb/sth to another place

    2. vi

    Il n'a pas beaucoup changé. — He hasn't changed much.

    Il a changé en bien. — He has changed for the better.

    changer de (= remplacer) [adresse, nom, voiture] — to change, (= permuter) [côté, place, train] to change + npl (= modifier) to change

    Il a de nouveau changé de voiture. — He has changed his car again.

    Il faudra changer de train. — We'll have to change trains.

    Il a changé de place avec Thierry. — He changed places with Thierry.

    Si on changeait de couleur? — What about a change of colour?, How about changing the colour?

    Il a changé de couleur. — It changed colour.

    Appelle-moi si tu changes d'avis. — Give me a ring if you change your mind.

    * * *
    changer verb table: manger
    A vtr
    1 ( échanger) to exchange [objet] (pour, contre for); to change [secrétaire, emploi] (pour, contre for); j'ai changé ma bicyclette pour un ordinateur I've exchanged my bicycle for a computer; changer un billet de 10 euros en pièces de 1 euro to change a 10-euro note into 1-euro coins; on m'a changé mon assistant I've been given a new assistant;
    2 ( convertir) to change [argent]; to cash [chèque de voyage]; vous pouvez changer jusqu'à 1 000 euros you can change up to 1,000 euros; changer des euros en dollars to change euros into dollars;
    3 ( remplacer) to change [objet, décoration] (par, pour for); to replace [personne] (par, pour with);
    4 ( déplacer) changer qch de place to move sth; changer un employé de poste to move an employee (to another position); ils ont changé les livres de place they've moved the books round GB ou around US; changer un livre d'étagère to move a book to another shelf; ⇒ épaule;
    5 ( modifier) to change [plan, attitude, habitudes, texte]; cette coiffure te change you look different with your hair like that; (mais) ça change tout! that changes everything!; qu'est-ce que ça change? what difference does it make?; il n'a pas changé une virgule au texte he didn't change a single comma in the text; tu as changé quelque chose à ta coiffure you've done something different with your hair; cela ne change rien à mes sentiments that doesn't change the way I feel; ça n 'a rien changé à mes habitudes it hasn't changed my habits in any way; cela ne change rien (à l'affaire) that doesn't make any difference; cela ne change rien au fait que that doesn't alter the fact that; tu n'y changerais rien there's nothing you can do about it; on ne peut rien y changer, on n'y peut rien changer fml we can't do anything about it; changer sa voix to disguise one's voice;
    6 ( transformer) changer qch/qn en to turn sth/sb into; essayer de changer le plomb en or to try to turn lead into gold; elle a été changée en statue she was turned into a statue; changer un prince en crapaud to turn a prince into a toad;
    7 ( rompre la monotonie) cela nous change de la pluie/du poulet it makes a change from the rain/from chicken; ça va le changer de sa vie tranquille à la campagne it'll be a change from his quiet life in the country; pour changer j'ai fait de l'oie I've cooked a goose (just) for a change; pour changer nous allons en Espagne cet été for a change we are going to Spain this summer; pour ne pas changer as usual; pour ne pas changer elle est en retard she's late as usual; ⇒ idée;
    B changer de vtr ind
    1 ( quitter) changer de to change; changer de main lit, fig to change hands; changer de profession/travail to change professions/jobs; changer de position to change position; changer de place [personne] to change seats (avec with); [objet] to be moved, to move; changer de chaussures/vêtements to change one's shoes/clothes; nous avons changé de route au retour we came back by a different route; changer de rue/quartier to move to another street/district; changer d'adresse to move to a new address, to change address; quand il m'a vu il a changé de trottoir when he saw me he crossed over to the other side of the road; elle change d'amant/de bonne tous les mois she has a new lover/maid every month; changer d'opinion or d'avis to change one's mind; à cette nouvelle, il a changé de tête or visage at this news, his expression changed; changeons de sujet let's change the subject; changer de propriétaire [maison, immeuble] to have a change of owner; changer de locataire [propriétaire] to get a new tenant; il a changé de caractère he's changed; changer de sexe to have a sex change; ⇒ chemise, disque;
    2 Transp changer de to change; changer de train/d'avion to change trains/planes.
    C vi
    1 ( se modifier) [situation, santé, temps] to change; il ne change pas, il est toujours le même he never changes, he's always the same; rien n'avait changé nothing had changed; il a changé en bien/mal he's changed for the better/worse; il y a quelque chose de changé ici/dans leur comportement there's something different here/about their behaviourGB;
    2 ( être remplacé) [personne, livre] to be changed; [horaire] to change.
    D se changer vpr
    1 ( mettre d'autres vêtements) to get changed, to change; je vais me changer et j'arrive I'm just going to get changed and I'll be with you; si tu sors, change-toi if you're going out, get changed first;
    2 ( se transformer) se changer en [personne, animal] to turn ou change into; se changer en citrouille to turn into a pumpkin; on ne se change pas people can't change.
    changer d'air to have a change of air; changer du tout au tout to change completely.
    [ʃɑ̃ʒe] verbe transitif (auxiliaire avoir)
    1. [modifier - apparence, règlement, caractère] to change, to alter ; [ - testament] to alter
    mais ça change tout! ah, that makes a big difference!
    2. [remplacer - installation, personnel] to change, to replace ; [ - roue, ampoule, drap etc.] to change
    3. FINANCE [en devises, en petite monnaie] to change
    4. [troquer]
    j'aime mieux ton écharpe, on change? I like your scarf better, shall we swap?
    5. [transformer]
    6. [transférer]
    changer quelqu'un de poste/service to transfer somebody to a new post/department
    7. (familier) [désaccoutumer]
    pars en vacances, ça te changera un peu (familier) you should go away somewhere, it'll be a change for you
    enfin un bon spectacle, ça nous change des inepties habituelles! (familier) a good show at last, that makes a change from the usual nonsense!
    viens, ça te changera les idées come along, it'll take your mind off things
    8. [bébé] to change
    ————————
    [ʃɑ̃ʒe] verbe intransitif (auxiliaire avoir)
    1. [se modifier - personne, temps, tarif etc.] to change
    changer en bien/mal to change for the better/worse
    2. TRANSPORTS [de métro, de train] to change
    3. [être remplacé] to change
    ————————
    [ʃɑ̃ʒe] verbe intransitif
    (auxiliaire être) [malade, personnalité] to change
    ————————
    changer de verbe plus préposition
    changer de nom/nationalité to change one's name/nationality
    changer de partenaire [en dansant, dans un couple] to change partners
    a. [une fois] to change channels
    b. [constamment] to zap
    elle m'a fait changer d'avis she changed ou made me change my mind
    tu vas changer de ton, dis! don't take that tone with me!
    a. [généralement] to change direction
    b. [vent] to change
    a. [au tennis, au ping-pong] change ou switch sides
    b. [dans un lit] turn over
    changer de cap (sens propre & figuré) to change course
    ————————
    se changer verbe pronominal
    ————————
    se changer en verbe pronominal plus préposition
    to change ou to turn into
    ————————
    pour changer locution adverbiale
    ————————
    pour ne pas changer locution adverbiale

    Dictionnaire Français-Anglais > changer

  • 11 terminar

    v.
    1 to end, to finish.
    terminamos el viaje en San Francisco we ended our journey in San Francisco
    ¿cómo termina la historia? how does the story end o finish?
    terminar con to put an end to (pobreza, corrupción)
    terminar de hacer algo to finish doing something
    Ella termina la obra She finishes the play.
    Ya terminé I already finished
    La película acabó The film finished.
    María terminó a Ricardo Mary finished=ruined Richard.
    2 to finish, to split up.
    ¡hemos terminado! it's over!
    3 to finish off, to complete, to culminate, to end off.
    María terminó la gira Mary finished off the tour.
    4 to end up, to wind up, to end up by.
    María terminó pintando Mary ended up painting.
    María terminó muy cansada Mary ended up all in.
    5 to break up.
    * * *
    1 (acabar) to finish, complete
    2 (dar fin) to end
    1 (acabar) to finish, end
    2 (acabar de) to have just (de, -)
    3 (final de una acción, de un estado) to end up
    4 (eliminar) to put an end ( con, to)
    5 (estropear) to damage ( con, -), ruin ( con, -)
    6 (reñir) to break up ( con, with)
    7 (enfermedad) to come to the final stage
    1 (acabarse) to finish, end, be over
    2 (agotarse) to run out
    \
    terminar bien to have a happy ending
    terminar mal (historia) to have an unhappy ending 2 (personas - relación) to end up on bad terms 3 (- destino) to come to a sticky end
    * * *
    verb
    * * *
    1.
    2. VI
    1) [persona]
    a) [en una acción, un trabajo] to finish

    ¿todavía no has terminado? — haven't you finished yet?

    ¿quieres dejar que termine? — would you mind letting me finish?

    • terminar de hacer algo — to finish doing sth, stop doing sth

    terminó de llenar el vaso con helado — he topped o filled the glass up with ice-cream

    • no termino de entender por qué lo hizo — I just can't understand why she did it

    no me cae mal, pero no termina de convencerme — I don't dislike him, but I'm not too sure about him

    b) [de una forma determinada] to end up

    terminó diciendo que... — he ended by saying that...

    c)

    • terminar con, han terminado con todas las provisiones — they've finished off all the supplies

    he terminado con Andrés — I've broken up with o finished with Andrés

    ¡estos niños van a terminar conmigo! — these children will be the death of me!

    d)

    • terminar por hacer algo — to end up doing sth

    2) [obra, acto] to end

    ¿cómo termina la película? — how does the film end?

    ¿a qué hora termina la clase? — what time does the class finish o end?

    3) [objeto, palabra]

    • terminar en algo — to end in sth

    termina en vocal — it ends in o with a vowel

    4) (Inform) to quit
    3.
    See:
    * * *
    1.
    verbo transitivo <trabajo/estudio> to finish; <casa/obras> to finish, complete

    dar por terminado algo — <discusión/conflicto> to put an end to something

    2.
    a) ( de hacer algo) to finish

    terminar DE + INF — to finish -ing

    b) (en estado, situación) to end up

    terminar DE algo: terminó de camarero he ended up (working) as a waiter; terminar + GER or terminar POR + INF to end up -ing; terminó marchándose or por marcharse — he ended up leaving

    2)
    a) reunión/situación to end, come to an end

    y para terminar nos sirvieron... — and to finish we had...

    b) ( rematar)
    a) (acabar, consumir)

    terminar con algo — <con libro/tarea> to finish with something; <con problema/abuso> to put an end to something

    b)

    terminar con alguien — ( pelearse) to finish with somebody; ( destruir) to kill somebody

    4) ( llegar a)

    terminar DE + INF: no termina de convencerme I'm not totally convinced; no terminaba de gustarle — she wasn't totally happy about it

    3.
    terminarse v pron
    1) azúcar/pan to run out; (+ me/te/le etc)
    2) curso/reunión to come to an end, be over
    3) (enf) <libro/comida> to finish, polish off
    * * *
    = be over, cease, conclude, discontinue, end, end up, exit, quit, see through + to its completion, terminate, finish up, break up, finish, wind up (in/at), get through, call it quits, carry through to + completion, finish off, top + Nombre + off, wind down, close + the book on.
    Ex. Alternatively, the loan policy may be changed to make documents due when the vacation is over.
    Ex. After collection has ceased (because a point of diminishing returns appears to have been reached), the cards must be put into groups of 'like' terms.
    Ex. Thus chapter 21 concludes with a number of special rules.
    Ex. Systems like OCLC are going from classical catalogs in the direction of online catalogs, and at least one institution on the OCLC system has discontinued adding cards to its catalog.
    Ex. Each field also ends with a special delimiter, which signals the end of the fields.
    Ex. But if you have a certain feeling about language, then language ends up becoming very, very important.
    Ex. Enter the lesson number you wish, or press the letter 'X' to exit the tutorial.
    Ex. If you decide not to send or save the message, replace the question mark in front of ' Quit' with another character.
    Ex. I would like to thank all those who at various times throughout the course of the project assisted so ably in seeing the work through to its completion.
    Ex. An SDI profile can be terminated at any future time by the commands.
    Ex. In trying to get the best of both worlds, we may have finished up with the worst.
    Ex. Tom Hernandez tried not to show how sad he felt about his friends' leaving, and managed to keep up a cheerful facade until the party broke up.
    Ex. Activities can be plotted to allow the librarian to determine the most expeditious route that can be taken to finish the event.
    Ex. Besides, winding up in an exclusive arrangement with a distributor that has rotten customer service ruins any advantage.
    Ex. Some children cannot get through a longer story or novel in less time.
    Ex. 'Professional people don't live by the clock: you wouldn't tell a doctor or a lawyer that he couldn't make a decision to call it quits on a particular day'.
    Ex. The author discusses the development process which began with a concept, continued with the formulation of objectives, and has been carried through to completion.
    Ex. His statement is a serious threat to the cooperative sector and was aimed at finishing off the movement.
    Ex. Top it off with spicy yacamole and it's worth the nosh.
    Ex. As President Bush's second term winds down, this is no time for him to be making trouble for his successor.
    Ex. Obama, who tries to steer clear of the political thicket of race and politics, accepted the apology and said he wanted to close the book on the episode.
    ----
    * estar casi terminado = be nearing completion, reach + near completion.
    * estar terminándose = be on + Posesivo + last legs, be on the way out.
    * no terminar nunca de tener problemas con = have + no end of problems with.
    * para terminar = in closing.
    * sin terminar = unfinished.
    * terminar con Algo = be done with it.
    * terminar con mejor cara = end up on + a high note.
    * terminar con una nota de optimismo = end + Nombre + on a high (note).
    * terminar con un broche de oro = end + Nombre + on a high (note).
    * terminar de forma positiva = end + Nombre + on a high (note).
    * terminar de + Infinitivo = complete + Gerundio.
    * terminar de trabajar = clock off + work.
    * terminar en empate = end in + a draw, result in + a draw.
    * terminar en un tono + Adjetivo = end on + a + Adjetivo + note.
    * terminar formando parte de = find + Posesivo + way into/onto.
    * terminar la jornada laboral = clock off + work.
    * terminar los estudios = graduate.
    * terminar mal = come to + a bad end.
    * terminar mejor de lo que + empezar = end up on + a high note.
    * terminar repentinamente = come to + a swift end, come to + an abrupt end.
    * terminarse = draw to + a close, run + short (of), be gone, come to + an end, draw to + an end, be all gone.
    * terminarse el tiempo = time + run out.
    * terminarse la (buena) suerte = run out of + luck, luck + run out.
    * terminar turno de trabajo = come off + duty.
    * terminar un embarazo = terminate + pregnancy.
    * * *
    1.
    verbo transitivo <trabajo/estudio> to finish; <casa/obras> to finish, complete

    dar por terminado algo — <discusión/conflicto> to put an end to something

    2.
    a) ( de hacer algo) to finish

    terminar DE + INF — to finish -ing

    b) (en estado, situación) to end up

    terminar DE algo: terminó de camarero he ended up (working) as a waiter; terminar + GER or terminar POR + INF to end up -ing; terminó marchándose or por marcharse — he ended up leaving

    2)
    a) reunión/situación to end, come to an end

    y para terminar nos sirvieron... — and to finish we had...

    b) ( rematar)
    a) (acabar, consumir)

    terminar con algo — <con libro/tarea> to finish with something; <con problema/abuso> to put an end to something

    b)

    terminar con alguien — ( pelearse) to finish with somebody; ( destruir) to kill somebody

    4) ( llegar a)

    terminar DE + INF: no termina de convencerme I'm not totally convinced; no terminaba de gustarle — she wasn't totally happy about it

    3.
    terminarse v pron
    1) azúcar/pan to run out; (+ me/te/le etc)
    2) curso/reunión to come to an end, be over
    3) (enf) <libro/comida> to finish, polish off
    * * *
    = be over, cease, conclude, discontinue, end, end up, exit, quit, see through + to its completion, terminate, finish up, break up, finish, wind up (in/at), get through, call it quits, carry through to + completion, finish off, top + Nombre + off, wind down, close + the book on.

    Ex: Alternatively, the loan policy may be changed to make documents due when the vacation is over.

    Ex: After collection has ceased (because a point of diminishing returns appears to have been reached), the cards must be put into groups of 'like' terms.
    Ex: Thus chapter 21 concludes with a number of special rules.
    Ex: Systems like OCLC are going from classical catalogs in the direction of online catalogs, and at least one institution on the OCLC system has discontinued adding cards to its catalog.
    Ex: Each field also ends with a special delimiter, which signals the end of the fields.
    Ex: But if you have a certain feeling about language, then language ends up becoming very, very important.
    Ex: Enter the lesson number you wish, or press the letter 'X' to exit the tutorial.
    Ex: If you decide not to send or save the message, replace the question mark in front of ' Quit' with another character.
    Ex: I would like to thank all those who at various times throughout the course of the project assisted so ably in seeing the work through to its completion.
    Ex: An SDI profile can be terminated at any future time by the commands.
    Ex: In trying to get the best of both worlds, we may have finished up with the worst.
    Ex: Tom Hernandez tried not to show how sad he felt about his friends' leaving, and managed to keep up a cheerful facade until the party broke up.
    Ex: Activities can be plotted to allow the librarian to determine the most expeditious route that can be taken to finish the event.
    Ex: Besides, winding up in an exclusive arrangement with a distributor that has rotten customer service ruins any advantage.
    Ex: Some children cannot get through a longer story or novel in less time.
    Ex: 'Professional people don't live by the clock: you wouldn't tell a doctor or a lawyer that he couldn't make a decision to call it quits on a particular day'.
    Ex: The author discusses the development process which began with a concept, continued with the formulation of objectives, and has been carried through to completion.
    Ex: His statement is a serious threat to the cooperative sector and was aimed at finishing off the movement.
    Ex: Top it off with spicy yacamole and it's worth the nosh.
    Ex: As President Bush's second term winds down, this is no time for him to be making trouble for his successor.
    Ex: Obama, who tries to steer clear of the political thicket of race and politics, accepted the apology and said he wanted to close the book on the episode.
    * estar casi terminado = be nearing completion, reach + near completion.
    * estar terminándose = be on + Posesivo + last legs, be on the way out.
    * no terminar nunca de tener problemas con = have + no end of problems with.
    * para terminar = in closing.
    * sin terminar = unfinished.
    * terminar con Algo = be done with it.
    * terminar con mejor cara = end up on + a high note.
    * terminar con una nota de optimismo = end + Nombre + on a high (note).
    * terminar con un broche de oro = end + Nombre + on a high (note).
    * terminar de forma positiva = end + Nombre + on a high (note).
    * terminar de + Infinitivo = complete + Gerundio.
    * terminar de trabajar = clock off + work.
    * terminar en empate = end in + a draw, result in + a draw.
    * terminar en un tono + Adjetivo = end on + a + Adjetivo + note.
    * terminar formando parte de = find + Posesivo + way into/onto.
    * terminar la jornada laboral = clock off + work.
    * terminar los estudios = graduate.
    * terminar mal = come to + a bad end.
    * terminar mejor de lo que + empezar = end up on + a high note.
    * terminar repentinamente = come to + a swift end, come to + an abrupt end.
    * terminarse = draw to + a close, run + short (of), be gone, come to + an end, draw to + an end, be all gone.
    * terminarse el tiempo = time + run out.
    * terminarse la (buena) suerte = run out of + luck, luck + run out.
    * terminar turno de trabajo = come off + duty.
    * terminar un embarazo = terminate + pregnancy.

    * * *
    terminar [A1 ]
    vt
    ‹trabajo/estudio› to finish
    ¿has terminado el libro que te presté? have you finished the book I lent you?
    no han terminado las obras they haven't finished o completed the work
    terminó el viaje en La Paz he ended his journey in La Paz, his journey finished in La Paz
    terminó sus días en Sicilia he ended his days in Sicily
    dieron por terminada la sesión they brought the session to a close
    este año no pudimos terminar el programa we didn't manage to get through o finish o complete the syllabus this year
    termina esa sopa inmediatamente finish up that soup at once
    puedes terminarlo, nosotros ya comimos you can finish it off, we've already had some
    terminala/termínenla ( RPl fam); stop it!, cut it out! ( colloq)
    ■ terminar
    vi
    A «persona»
    1 (de hacer algo) to finish
    termina de una vez hurry up and finish
    terminar DE + INF to finish -ING
    estoy terminando de leerlo I'm reading the last few pages, I'm coming to the end of it, I've nearly finished reading it
    déjame terminar de hablar let me finish (speaking)
    salió nada más terminar de comer he went out as soon as he'd finished eating
    2 (en un estado, una situación) to end up
    terminé muy cansada I ended up feeling very tired
    va a terminar mal he's going to come to a bad end
    terminar DE algo:
    terminó de camarero en Miami he ended up (working) as a waiter in Miami
    terminar + GER or terminar POR + INF to end up -ING
    terminará aceptando or por aceptar la oferta she'll end up accepting the offer, she'll accept the offer in the end
    B
    1 «reunión/situación» to end, come to an end
    al terminar la clase when the class ended, at the end of the class
    llegamos cuando todo había terminado we arrived when it was all over
    el caso terminó en los tribunales the case ended up in court
    esto va a terminar mal this is going to turn out o end badly
    la historia termina bien the story has a happy ending
    las huellas terminan aquí the tracks end o stop here
    y para terminar nos sirvieron un excelente coñac and to finish we had an excellent brandy
    2 (rematar) terminar EN algo to end IN sth
    palabras que terminan en consonante words that end in a consonant
    zapatos terminados en punta pointed shoes o shoes with pointed toes
    1
    (agotar, acabar): terminaron con todo lo que había en la nevera they polished off everything in the fridge
    terminó con su salud it ruined his health
    ocho años de cárcel terminaron con él eight years in prison destroyed him
    una solución que termine con el problema a solution that will put an end to the problem
    2 (pelearse) terminar CON algn to finish WITH sb
    ha terminado con el novio she's finished with o split up with her boyfriend
    D (llegar a) terminar DE + INF:
    no termina de convencerme I'm not totally convinced
    no terminaba de gustarle she wasn't totally happy about it
    A «azúcar/pan» to run out
    el café se ha terminado we've run out of coffee, the coffee's run out
    (+ me/te/le etc): se me terminó la lana azul I've run out of blue wool
    se nos han terminado, señora we've run out (of them), madam o we've sold out, madam
    B «curso/reunión» to come to an end, be over
    otro año que se termina another year comes to an end o another year is over
    se terminó la discusión, aquí el que manda soy yo that's the end of the argument, I'm in charge here
    C ( enf) ‹libro/comida› to finish, polish off
    * * *

     

    terminar ( conjugate terminar) verbo transitivo ‹trabajo/estudio› to finish;
    ‹casa/obras› to finish, complete;
    ‹discusión/conflicto› to put an end to;

    terminar la comida con un café to end the meal with a cup of coffee
    verbo intransitivo
    1 [ persona]

    terminar de hacer algo to finish doing sth;

    b) (en estado, situación) to end up;


    va a terminar mal he's going to come to a bad end;
    terminó marchándose or por marcharse he ended up leaving
    2
    a) [reunión/situación] to end, come to an end;


    esto va a terminar mal this is going to turn out o end badly
    b) ( rematar) terminar EN algo to end in sth;


    c) ( llegar a):


    no terminaba de gustarle she wasn't totally happy about it
    3

    a) ( acabar) terminar con algo ‹con libro/tarea› to finish with sth;

    ‹con problema/abuso› to put an end to sth
    b) terminar con algn ( pelearse) to finish with sb;

    ( matar) to kill sb
    terminarse verbo pronominal
    1 [azúcar/pan] to run out;

    2 [curso/reunión] to come to an end, be over
    3 ( enf) ‹libro/comida› to finish, polish off
    terminar
    I verbo transitivo
    1 (una tarea, objeto) to finish: ya terminó el jersey, she has already finished the pullover ➣ Ver nota en finish 2 (de comer, beber, gastar) to finish: te compraré otro cuando termines este frasco, I'll buy you another one when you finish this bottle
    II verbo intransitivo
    1 (cesar, poner fin) to finish, end: mi trabajo termina a las seis, I finish work at six o'clock
    no termina de creérselo, he still can't believe it
    (dejar de necesitar, utilizar) ¿has terminado con el ordenador?, have you finished with the computer?
    (acabar la vida, carrera, etc) to end up: terminó amargada, she ended up being embittered
    2 (eliminar, acabar) este niño terminará con mi paciencia, this boy is trying my patience
    tenemos que terminar con esta situación, we have to put an end to this situation
    3 (estar rematado) to end: termina en vocal, it ends with a vowel
    terminaba en punta, it had a pointed end
    ' terminar' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    egresar
    - emplear
    - enterrar
    - fijarse
    - frenesí
    - gastar
    - parar
    - rematar
    - sin
    - ventilarse
    - zanjar
    - acabar
    - completar
    - concluir
    - faltar
    - hasta
    - medio
    - mucho
    - para
    - pelear
    - por
    - último
    English:
    break up
    - cease
    - charge off
    - clock
    - close
    - complete
    - cooperation
    - crop up
    - drink up
    - eat up
    - end
    - end up
    - expire
    - finish
    - finish off
    - finish up
    - finish with
    - get through
    - graduate
    - knock off
    - leeway
    - near
    - stop
    - time limit
    - vain
    - wind up
    - and
    - break
    - concentrate
    - conclude
    - draw
    - drink
    - eat
    - finished
    - get
    - leave
    - nowhere
    - round
    - see
    - undone
    - unfinished
    - wind
    * * *
    ♦ vt
    [acabar] to finish;
    termina la cerveza, que nos vamos finish your beer, we're going;
    terminamos el viaje en San Francisco we ended our journey in San Francisco;
    dar por terminado algo [discurso, reunión, discusión, visita] to bring sth to an end o a close;
    está sin terminar it isn't finished;
    RP Fam
    ¡terminala! that's enough!
    ♦ vi
    1. [acabar] to end, to finish;
    [tren, autobús, línea de metro] to stop, to terminate;
    ¿cómo termina la historia? how does the story end o finish?;
    todo ha terminado it's all over;
    deja que termine, déjame terminar [al hablar] let me finish;
    terminar con la pobreza/la corrupción to put an end to poverty/corruption;
    ¿has terminado con las tijeras? have o are you finished with the scissors?;
    han terminado con toda la leche que quedaba they've finished off o used up all the milk that was left;
    terminar con algo/alguien [arruinar, destruir] to destroy sth/sb;
    [matar] to kill sth/sb;
    terminar de hacer algo to finish doing sth;
    terminamos de desayunar a las nueve we finished having breakfast at nine;
    terminar en [objeto] to end in;
    termina en punta it ends in a point;
    las sílabas que terminan en vocal syllables that end in a vowel;
    para terminar, debo agradecer… [en discurso] finally, I would like to thank…
    2. [reñir] to finish, to split up ( con with);
    ¡hemos terminado! it's over!
    3. [en cierto estado o situación] to end up;
    terminamos de mal humor/un poco deprimidos we ended up in a bad mood/(feeling) rather depressed;
    terminó loco he ended up going mad;
    vas a terminar odiando la física you'll end up hating physics;
    este chico terminará mal this boy will come to a bad end;
    este asunto terminará mal no good will come of this matter;
    terminó de camarero/en la cárcel he ended up as a waiter/in jail;
    la discusión terminó en pelea the argument ended in a fight;
    terminar por hacer algo to end up doing sth
    4. [llegar a]
    no termino de entender lo que quieres decir I still can't quite understand what you mean;
    no terminábamos de ponernos de acuerdo we couldn't quite seem to come to an agreement;
    no termina de gustarme I'm not crazy about it
    * * *
    I v/t end, finish
    II v/i
    1 end, finish;
    terminar con algo/alguien finish with sth/s.o.;
    terminar de hacer algo finish doing sth
    2 ( parar) stop
    3
    :
    terminar por hacer algo end up doing sth
    * * *
    1) concluir: to end, to conclude
    2) acabar: to complete, to finish off
    1) : to finish
    2) : to stop, to end
    * * *
    1. (en general) to finish
    2. (al final) to end up

    Spanish-English dictionary > terminar

  • 12 Historical Portugal

       Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.
       A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.
       Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140
       The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."
       In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.
       The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.
       Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385
       Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in
       Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.
       The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.
       Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580
       The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.
       The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.
       What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.
       By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.
       Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.
       The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.
       By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.
       In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.
       Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640
       Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.
       Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.
       On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.
       Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822
       Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.
       Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.
       In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the
       Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.
       Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.
       Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.
       Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910
       During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.
       Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.
       Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.
       Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.
       Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.
       As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.
       First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26
       Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.
       The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.
       Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.
       The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74
       During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."
       Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.
       For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),
       and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.
       The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.
       With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.
       During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.
       The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.
       At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.
       The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.
       Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76
       Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.
       Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.
       In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.
       In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.
       In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.
       The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until
       UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.
       Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000
       After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.
       From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.
       Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.
       Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.
       In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.
       In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.
       Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.
       Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.
       The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.
       Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.
       Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).
       All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.
       The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.
       After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.
       Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.
       Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.
       From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.
       Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.
       In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.
       An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal

  • 13 أعاد

    أَعَادَ \ bring back: to (cause to) return: This old photograph brings back happy memories. redo: to do again: This bad work must be redone. renew: to start again; repeat: They renewed their attack. repeat: to say again; do again: He repeated his question. Don’t repeat your mistake. replace: to put (sth.) back in its place: Please replace these books on the right shelves. restore: to bring back; give back: The teacher stopped the fight and restored order. The doctor restored her health (or restored her to health). The police restored the stolen car to its owner. return: to give back; put back; send back: She returned the book that I lent her. He showed me the picture and returned it to his pocket. \ See Also أرجع (أَرْجَعَ)، ذكر (ذَكَّرَ)، كرر (كَرَّر)، رد (رَدَّ)، بدل (بَدَّل)‏ \ أَعَادَ الأشياء إلى أماكنها \ pack up: to put things (articles of equipment etc.) together after use; stop working: You can pack (your tools) up and go home. \ أَعَادَ إلى حالتِه الأصلية \ restore: to repair (a ruined building, a damaged work of art, etc.). \ أَعَادَ تسمية \ rename: to change the name of: The Gold Coast was renamed Ghana when it became an independent country. \ أَعَادَ تَشكِيل \ re-form: to form again: The music club, which had gone out of action, was re-formed with different members. \ أَعَاد سَمّاعة الهاتف إلى مكانها (أنْهى مُكالَمة هاتفيّة)‏ \ ring off: to put down a telephone so as to end the call. \ أَعَادَ صياغة \ reword: to express in other words: This sentence needs rewording more politely. \ أَعَادَ القَوْل \ retell: to tell again, often differently: old stories, retold in modern English. \ أَعَادَ كتابة \ rewrite: to write again: You must rewrite this page more neatly. The book was rewritten in simpler English. \ أَعَادَ لَعِب \ replay: to play again (a match that had no result). \ أَعَادَ مَلء \ refill: to fill again. \ أَعَادَ النّظر في \ review: to examine again and reconsider (plans, facts, etc.); examine and report on (books, plays, films, music, art, etc.) for a newspaper. \ See Also راجع (رَاجَعَ)‏ \ أَعَادَ النظر فيه \ think better of it: to change one’s plan; decide not to do sth.: I planned to leave my job, but then I thought better of it.

    Arabic-English dictionary > أعاد

  • 14 Ersatz

    Ersatz m 1. GEN replacement; 2. RECHT, V&M substitute • Ersatz leisten RECHT, V&M make restitution, replace
    * * *
    m 1. < Geschäft> replacement; 2. <Recht, V&M> substitute
    * * *
    Ersatz
    replacing, substitution, shift, (Alternative) equivalent, alternation, (Ersatzmittel) surrogate, substitute, stopgap, (Gegenwert) equivalent, (Person) substitute, spare hand, (Rückerstattung) refund, restitution, (Schadloshaltung) compensation, indemnification, damages, reimbursement, recompense, amends, (Wiederherstellung) reparation, redress, replacement;
    • als Ersatz in exchange, in return for, spare, (Entschädigung für) by way of compensation;
    • als Ersatz beschädigter Waren as a setoff for damaged goods;
    • gleichwertiger Ersatz adequate substitute, (Erstattung) equivalent refund;
    • Ersatz menschlicher Arbeitskraft durch Maschinen displacement of human labo(u)r by machines;
    • Ersatz für werterhöhende Aufwendungen compensation for improvements;
    • Ersatz von Auslagen compensation for outlay incurred;
    • Ersatz von Betriebseinrichtungen equipment replacement;
    • Ersatz abgenutzter Einzelteile replacement of worn-out parts;
    • Ersatz in Geld monetary indemnity;
    • Ersatz der Reisespesen substitute for travel, refund of travel expenses;
    • Ersatz für nicht wieder gutzumachenden Schaden irreparable damages;
    • Ersatz immateriellen Schadens special damage;
    • Ersatz des mittelbaren Schadens constructive damages;
    • Ersatz des tatsächlichen Schadens compensatory damages (US);
    • Ersatz des unmittelbaren Schadens prospective (direct, proximate) damages;
    • Ersatz der üblichen Schäden general damages;
    • Ersatz aller Schadenfolgen necessary damages;
    • Ersatz der Spesen reimbursement for expenses incurred;
    • Ersatz für Streikfälle strike replacement;
    • Ersatz bis zu 3/4 der versicherten Werte three-fourth value clause, (Feuerversicherung) three-fourth loss clause;
    • als Ersatz für j. einspringen to step in as a substitute for s. o.;
    • Ersatz erhalten to recover;
    • Ersatz für Havarie erhalten to recover average;
    • Ersatz fordern to claim damages;
    • Ersatz gewähren to satisfy;
    • Ersatz herausgeben to turn over a compensation;
    • Ersatz leisten to compensate, to make restitution (amends), to recoup, to restitute, to repay, to recompense;
    • zum Ersatz verpflichtet sein to be liable for damages;
    • Ersatz des unmittelbaren Schadens verlangen to claim constructive damages;
    • sich Ersatz verschaffen to recover;
    • Ersatzanlage emergency set;
    • Ersatzanschaffungen replacements.

    Business german-english dictionary > Ersatz

  • 15 sur

    1. dried, smoked 2. thick skinned, impudent, brazen 3. (Persian) light brown karakul; dark gray in color.sur 4 dial.imposing demeanor v.t. to push, to shove, to move; to drive; to lead, to direct; (coll.) to rub in or wipe on (s. oldinga sur to move or drive forward. chetga sur to push aside. surib bor to drive forward. surib ket to drag along; to run off with (a horse); to bring to ruin. surib chiqar to drive out. suyak sur to pass from generation to generation. tirnog’i suribdi to have a new nail replace an old, damaged one. umr sur to live, to spend one’s life. qalam sur to pen, to write. (surdir, suril, surin, surish)

    Uzbek-English dictionary > sur

  • 16 поврежденный

    Поврежденный (участок)-- The permanent distortion showed up as a severe increase in the thread densities in the affected areas. Поврежденный - damaged, deteriorated, affected; injured
     Tighten all hose fittings and replace deteriorated hose.

    Русско-английский научно-технический словарь переводчика > поврежденный

  • 17 odkup|ić1

    pf — odkup|ywać impf vt 1. (kupić od kogoś) to purchase, to buy
    - odkupić od kogoś dom z ogrodem to buy a house with a garden from sb
    - odkupywać udziały w firmie to purchase shares in a company
    2. (odzyskać) to repurchase, to buy back, to redeem
    - odkupić od kogoś pamiątki rodzinne to buy (one’s) family heirlooms back from sb
    3. (wynagrodzić stratę) to replace
    - przepraszam, że zniszczyłem ci płytę, odkupię ci ją I’m sorry I’ve damaged your record, I’ll buy you a new one
    4. przen. to expiate; to atone for
    - odkupić swoje zbrodnie/grzechy to expiate one’s crimes/sins

    The New English-Polish, Polish-English Kościuszko foundation dictionary > odkup|ić1

  • 18 plastic surgery

    surgery to repair or replace damaged skin, or to improve the appearance usually of the face (noun plastic surgeon)
    جِراحَةٌ بلاسْتيكِيَّه

    Arabic-English dictionary > plastic surgery

  • 19 Mind

       It becomes, therefore, no inconsiderable part of science... to know the different operations of the mind, to separate them from each other, to class them under their proper heads, and to correct all that seeming disorder in which they lie involved when made the object of reflection and inquiry.... It cannot be doubted that the mind is endowed with several powers and faculties, that these powers are distinct from one another, and that what is really distinct to the immediate perception may be distinguished by reflection and, consequently, that there is a truth and falsehood which lie not beyond the compass of human understanding. (Hume, 1955, p. 22)
       Let us then suppose the mind to be, as we say, white Paper, void of all Characters, without any Ideas: How comes it to be furnished? Whence comes it by that vast store, which the busy and boundless Fancy of Man has painted on it, with an almost endless variety? Whence has it all the materials of Reason and Knowledge? To this I answer, in one word, from Experience. (Locke, quoted in Herrnstein & Boring, 1965, p. 584)
       The kind of logic in mythical thought is as rigorous as that of modern science, and... the difference lies, not in the quality of the intellectual process, but in the nature of things to which it is applied.... Man has always been thinking equally well; the improvement lies, not in an alleged progress of man's mind, but in the discovery of new areas to which it may apply its unchanged and unchanging powers. (Leґvi-Strauss, 1963, p. 230)
       MIND. A mysterious form of matter secreted by the brain. Its chief activity consists in the endeavor to ascertain its own nature, the futility of the attempt being due to the fact that it has nothing but itself to know itself with. (Bierce, quoted in Minsky, 1986, p. 55)
       [Philosophy] understands the foundations of knowledge and it finds these foundations in a study of man-as-knower, of the "mental processes" or the "activity of representation" which make knowledge possible. To know is to represent accurately what is outside the mind, so to understand the possibility and nature of knowledge is to understand the way in which the mind is able to construct such representation.... We owe the notion of a "theory of knowledge" based on an understanding of "mental processes" to the seventeenth century, and especially to Locke. We owe the notion of "the mind" as a separate entity in which "processes" occur to the same period, and especially to Descartes. We owe the notion of philosophy as a tribunal of pure reason, upholding or denying the claims of the rest of culture, to the eighteenth century and especially to Kant, but this Kantian notion presupposed general assent to Lockean notions of mental processes and Cartesian notions of mental substance. (Rorty, 1979, pp. 3-4)
       Under pressure from the computer, the question of mind in relation to machine is becoming a central cultural preoccupation. It is becoming for us what sex was to Victorians-threat, obsession, taboo, and fascination. (Turkle, 1984, p. 313)
       7) Understanding the Mind Remains as Resistant to Neurological as to Cognitive Analyses
       Recent years have been exciting for researchers in the brain and cognitive sciences. Both fields have flourished, each spurred on by methodological and conceptual developments, and although understanding the mechanisms of mind is an objective shared by many workers in these areas, their theories and approaches to the problem are vastly different....
       Early experimental psychologists, such as Wundt and James, were as interested in and knowledgeable about the anatomy and physiology of the nervous system as about the young science of the mind. However, the experimental study of mental processes was short-lived, being eclipsed by the rise of behaviorism early in this century. It was not until the late 1950s that the signs of a new mentalism first appeared in scattered writings of linguists, philosophers, computer enthusiasts, and psychologists.
       In this new incarnation, the science of mind had a specific mission: to challenge and replace behaviorism. In the meantime, brain science had in many ways become allied with a behaviorist approach.... While behaviorism sought to reduce the mind to statements about bodily action, brain science seeks to explain the mind in terms of physiochemical events occurring in the nervous system. These approaches contrast with contemporary cognitive science, which tries to understand the mind as it is, without any reduction, a view sometimes described as functionalism.
       The cognitive revolution is now in place. Cognition is the subject of contemporary psychology. This was achieved with little or no talk of neurons, action potentials, and neurotransmitters. Similarly, neuroscience has risen to an esteemed position among the biological sciences without much talk of cognitive processes. Do the fields need each other?... [Y]es because the problem of understanding the mind, unlike the wouldbe problem solvers, respects no disciplinary boundaries. It remains as resistant to neurological as to cognitive analyses. (LeDoux & Hirst, 1986, pp. 1-2)
       Since the Second World War scientists from different disciplines have turned to the study of the human mind. Computer scientists have tried to emulate its capacity for visual perception. Linguists have struggled with the puzzle of how children acquire language. Ethologists have sought the innate roots of social behaviour. Neurophysiologists have begun to relate the function of nerve cells to complex perceptual and motor processes. Neurologists and neuropsychologists have used the pattern of competence and incompetence of their brain-damaged patients to elucidate the normal workings of the brain. Anthropologists have examined the conceptual structure of cultural practices to advance hypotheses about the basic principles of the mind. These days one meets engineers who work on speech perception, biologists who investigate the mental representation of spatial relations, and physicists who want to understand consciousness. And, of course, psychologists continue to study perception, memory, thought and action.
    ... [W]orkers in many disciplines have converged on a number of central problems and explanatory ideas. They have realized that no single approach is likely to unravel the workings of the mind: it will not give up its secrets to psychology alone; nor is any other isolated discipline-artificial intelligence, linguistics, anthropology, neurophysiology, philosophy-going to have any greater success. (Johnson-Laird, 1988, p. 7)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Mind

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